Vienna, 29 June 2011 – A call has been made for all European and Central Asian States to join the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or Ottawa Convention. The appeal was made today at the headquarters of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) by H.E. Gazmend Turdiu, the senior Albanian diplomat currently presiding over the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention.

“I call upon the 10 OSCE Member States that have not yet joined our humanitarian movement to do so as soon as possible,” said Mr. Turdiu, who addressed the 650th plenary meeting of the OSCE’s Forum for Security and Cooperation. While 46 OSCE Member States are parties to the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, the following 10 are not: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, the Russian Federation, the United States of America and Uzbekistan.

“In keeping with the commitments made by States Parties at the landmark 2009 Cartagena Summit on a Mine-Free World, I would like to seize this opportunity to promote ratification of and accession to the Convention,” said Mr. Turdiu.

Eliminating anti-personnel landmines makes borders more secure, not less

Since 2003, the OSCE has been part of global efforts to assist States in fulfilling their Convention obligations through its mine action programme in Tajikistan. Beyond Tajikistan the OSCE, in partnership with the Slovenian-based International Trust Fund, has facilitated cooperation to address landmine challenges through Central Asia.

“I would also like to acknowledge the instrumental role of the OSCE in seeking to enhance border security through the OSCE Border Management Staff College,” said Mr. Turdiu. “As parties to the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, we have accepted that borders become actually more secure as opposed to less secure, through the elimination of anti-personnel mines.”

“In many regions, the top perceived barrier to accession appears to be related to border security,” added Mr. Turdiu. “However, 156 States of the world have accepted that they will ensure State sovereignty and the security of borders without anti-personnel mines. I encourage OSCE Member States that are not yet parties to the Convention to consult with those states that have already joined, so that they can learn from our experiences”.

The Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention

The AP Mine Ban Convention was adopted in Oslo in 1997 and was opened for signature in Ottawa the same year; it entered into force in 1999.

To date 156 States are parties to the Convention, 152 of them now no longer hold stocks; almost 44 million mines have been destroyed by the States Parties. The vast majority of these mines – more than 37 million – have been destroyed by 33 OSCE Member States.

34 of 50 States that at one time manufactured anti-personnel mines are now bound by the Convention’s ban on production. Most other parties have put in place moratoria on production and / or transfers of landmines.

Demining has resulted in millions of square metres of once dangerous land being released for normal human activity.

Natural disasters, including drought, earthquakes, floods, and wildfires, as well as ongoing complex emergencies and limited government capacity in the region, present significant challenges to vulnerable populations in Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia (EMCA). Between FY 2004 and FY 2013, USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) and USAID’s Office of Food for Peace (USAID/FFP) provided assistance in response to a range of disasters, including floods, wildfires, winter emergencies, and complex crises.

Overview

With 53 National Societies, from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China, the Europe Zone is very diverse, and there are huge differences when it comes to the level of development and self-reliance. Some National Societies are still very much dependent on external funding, and the sustainability of their programmes and their overall organisation can often be questioned. In the given context, after a long-lasting economic crisis, we have more and more National Societies who are undergoing a major crisis that is triggered by the crisis itself, but the root causes are traced back to the past when the necessary organisational changes had not been undertaken. The traditional way of thinking that only National Societies in transition countries are underperforming is not true any more. The situation is more complex than that. Some of the National Societies in our region are in the middle of the implementation of their planned change processes (Italy and Ireland, for instance) and some others are embarking on a painful journey just now (Greece). Tailored support and individual approach have been the working philosophy of the Secretariat of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and it will continue to be like this.

There is still an interest in the Organizational Capacity Assessment and Certification Initiative (OCAC) as a self-assessment tool with the possibility to plan more focused Organizational Development interventions and development plans within the NSs in the Europe Zone. To date, 17 NSs have undergone the self-assessment process in Europe and the majority have either developed or are in the process of developing a plan of action linked to the OCAC outcomes.

The National Societies of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Hungary are in the process of discussions with their own governments about the adoption of Red Cross/Red Crescent Laws. A number of National Societies have completed the revision of their Statutes (Russia, Iceland) and some others have started this process (Kazakhstan, Greece). The IFRC Europe Zone Office will continue to accompany the NSs along this process and will interact closely with the Governance department at the Federation`s Geneva-based Secretariat.

Genetic diversity of livestock can help feed a hotter, harsher world

Despite growing interest in safeguarding biodiversity of livestock and poultry,genetic erosion continues

27 January 2016, Rome - Livestock keepers and policy makers worldwide are increasingly interested in harnessing animal biodiversity to improve production and food security on a warmer, more crowded planet, according to a new FAO report issued today. The agency nonetheless warns that many valuable animal breeds continue to be at risk and calls for stronger efforts to use the pool of genetic resources sustainably.

According to The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, some 17 percent (1,458) of the world's farm animal breeds are currently at risk of extinction, while the risk status of many others (58 percent) is simply unknown due to a lack of data on the size and structure of their populations. Nearly 100 livestock breeds have gone extinct between 2000 and 2014.

Country data shows that indiscriminate cross-breeding is considered as the main cause of genetic erosion. Other common threats to animal genetic diversity are the increasing use of non-native breeds, weak policies and institutions regulating the livestock sector, the decline of traditional livestock production systems, and the neglect of breeds considered not competitive enough.

Europe and the Caucasus, and North America are the two areas in the world with the highest proportion of at-risk breeds. In absolute terms, the highest number of at-risk breeds can be found in Europe and the Caucasus.

Both areas are characterized by highly specialized livestock industries that tend to use only a small number of breeds for production.

Why biodiversity matters

Genetic diversity provides the raw material for farmers and pastoralists to improve their breeds and adapt livestock populations to changing environments and changing demands.

"For thousands of years, domesticated animals, like sheep, chickens and camels, have contributed directly to the livelihoods and food security of millions of people," said FAO Director General José Graziano da Silva, "That includes some 70 percent of the world's rural poor today."

"Genetic diversity is a prerequisite for adaptation in the face of future challenges", according to the Director-General, who added that the report will "underpin renewed efforts to ensure that animal genetic resources are used and developed to promote global food security, and remain available for future generations."

Among the future challenges are climate change, emerging diseases, pressure on land and water, and shifting market demands, which make it more important than ever to ensure animal genetic resources are conserved and used sustainably.

Currently, some 38 species and 8,774 separate breeds of domesticated birds and mammals are used in agriculture and food production.

Rise in national gene banks and improved management

A total of 129 countries participated in the new global assessment, which follows nearly a decade after the release of the first global assessment of animal genetic resources in 2007.

"The data we've collected suggests there's been improvement in the number of at-risk breeds since the first assessment," says Beate Scherf, Animal Production Officer at FAO and co-author of the report. "And governments overall have definitely stepped up efforts to halt genetic erosion and more sustainably manage their national livestock breeds."

The study finds that governments are increasingly recognizing the importance of sustainably using and developing the genetic resources embodied in livestock.

When FAO published the first global assessment in 2007, fewer than 10 countries reported having established a gene bank. That number has now risen to 64 countries, and an additional 41 countries are planning to establish such a gene bank, according to the new report.

And these efforts are bearing fruit, experts say: "Over the last decade, countries across Europe have invested heavily in building shared information systems and gene banks as security measures," according to Scherf.

Regional collaborations like the new European Gene Bank Network (EUGENA) are key to managing and improving breeds in the future, she says, and should be supported by in situ conservation of live animals in their natural habitat.

In situ conservation also recognizes the cultural and environmental value of keeping live populations of diverse animal breeds.

Some 177 countries additionally have appointed National Coordinators and 78 have set up multi-stakeholder advisory groups to aid national efforts to better manage animal genetic resources.

Increasing global trade in animal genetic resources

This comes at a time of expansion in the global trade in breeding animals and livestock semen, often for cross-breeding purposes, with many developing countries emerging as significant importers and some also as exporters of genetic material.

Increasingly, farmers and policy makers in developing countries have embraced imports of genetic material as a way to enhance the productivity of their livestock populations - growing their milk output, for example, or decreasing the time needed for an animal to reach maturity.

But if not well planned, cross-breeding can fail to significantly improve productivity and lead to the loss of valuable characteristics such as the special ability to cope with extremes of temperature, limited water supplies, poor-quality feed, rough terrain, high altitudes and other challenging aspects of the production environment.

Challenges to management of genetic resources

In order to better manage livestock diversity going forward, animal breeds and their production environment need to be better described, according to the report, which shows genetic resources are frequently lost when limited knowledge leads to certain breeds going underused.

More also needs to be done to monitor population trends and emerging threats to diversity, according to the report.

Trendspotting will be critical

Among the major changes to the sector over the last decades has been the rapid expansion of large-scale high-input livestock production systems in parts of the developing world, accompanied by growing pressures on natural resources.

South Asia and Africa -two very resource-constrained regions that are home to many small-scale livestock keepers and a diverse range of animal genetic resources - are projected to become the main centres of growth in meat and milk consumption.

Trends like these are grounds for concern because similar rises in demand in other regions have come with a shift away from small-scale production that supports local genetic diversity to large-scale production that is more likely to use a limited number of breeds and can create major challenges for the sustainable use of animal genetic resources.

Changes in food systems are among trends that should be carefully tracked to predict their impact on demand for particular species and breeds, according to the report, along technology, climate changes and government policies.

Need for greater international collaboration

At the same time, the report stresses that international cooperation remains an area requiring improvement in order to support future livestock biodiversity.

Since 2007, countries have been implementing the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources, the first internationally agreed framework of its kind.

But international collaboration remains relatively underdeveloped among countries implementing the Plan, the report cautions. Cooperation should be stepped up to move beyond the limited number of bilateral and regional research programs that are currently in place.

Protracted complex emergencies and natural disasters, including drought, earthquakes, floods, and wildfires, present significant challenges to vulnerable populations in Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia (EMCA). Between FY 2007 and FY 2016, USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) and USAID’s Office of Food for Peace (USAID/FFP) provided assistance in response to a range of disasters, including floods, wildfires, winter emergencies, and complex crises. Examples include complex emergencies in Georgia, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Ukraine, and Yemen; earthquakes in Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkey; floods in Moldova, Montenegro, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia; and wildfires in Albania, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, and Portugal.

Between FY 2007 and FY 2016, USAID provided nearly $5 billion for emergency response programs in the EMCA region. USAID/FFP assistance included nearly $2.8 billion for food assistance in the form of U.S. purchased food, locally and/or regionally purchased food, cash transfers for food, food vouchers, and related activities such as nutrition messaging, community asset building, and support for UN World Food Program special operations. USAID/OFDA assistance included more than $2.2 billion for agriculture and food security, health, livelihoods, nutrition, protection, shelter, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions, as well as support for humanitarian coordination and logistics and the provision of relief commodities.

In the last decade, USAID responded to 88 disasters in EMCA. USAID also frequently deployed humanitarian teams to the region, including five Disaster Assistance Response Teams (DARTs). DARTs deployed to Georgia in FY 2008 and Libya in FY 2011 in response to complex emergencies. During FY 2011, a DART deployed to Israel in response to wildfires. Escalated conflict in Syria prompted USAID to stand up a DART in FY 2013, and a DART deployed to Iraq in the wake of deteriorating security that prompted significant population movement in FY 2014; both DARTs remained active throughout FY 2016. During the past ten years, USAID also activated multiple Washington, D.C.-based Response Management Teams to better facilitate DART coordination and response efforts.

The map below shows asylum applications by under age 18 year olds and gender. Darker colours mean more people have applied in a certain country. Use the slider to select a year or the drop down menus below to display data for different age groups or different home countries.

Vienna, 29 June 2011 – A call has been made for all European and Central Asian States to join the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, or Ottawa Convention. The appeal was made today at the headquarters of the Organisation for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) by H.E. Gazmend Turdiu, the senior Albanian diplomat currently presiding over the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention.

“I call upon the 10 OSCE Member States that have not yet joined our humanitarian movement to do so as soon as possible,” said Mr. Turdiu, who addressed the 650th plenary meeting of the OSCE’s Forum for Security and Cooperation. While 46 OSCE Member States are parties to the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, the following 10 are not: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Finland, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Poland, the Russian Federation, the United States of America and Uzbekistan.

“In keeping with the commitments made by States Parties at the landmark 2009 Cartagena Summit on a Mine-Free World, I would like to seize this opportunity to promote ratification of and accession to the Convention,” said Mr. Turdiu.

Eliminating anti-personnel landmines makes borders more secure, not less

Since 2003, the OSCE has been part of global efforts to assist States in fulfilling their Convention obligations through its mine action programme in Tajikistan. Beyond Tajikistan the OSCE, in partnership with the Slovenian-based International Trust Fund, has facilitated cooperation to address landmine challenges through Central Asia.

“I would also like to acknowledge the instrumental role of the OSCE in seeking to enhance border security through the OSCE Border Management Staff College,” said Mr. Turdiu. “As parties to the Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention, we have accepted that borders become actually more secure as opposed to less secure, through the elimination of anti-personnel mines.”

“In many regions, the top perceived barrier to accession appears to be related to border security,” added Mr. Turdiu. “However, 156 States of the world have accepted that they will ensure State sovereignty and the security of borders without anti-personnel mines. I encourage OSCE Member States that are not yet parties to the Convention to consult with those states that have already joined, so that they can learn from our experiences”.

The Anti-Personnel Mine Ban Convention

The AP Mine Ban Convention was adopted in Oslo in 1997 and was opened for signature in Ottawa the same year; it entered into force in 1999.

To date 156 States are parties to the Convention, 152 of them now no longer hold stocks; almost 44 million mines have been destroyed by the States Parties. The vast majority of these mines – more than 37 million – have been destroyed by 33 OSCE Member States.

34 of 50 States that at one time manufactured anti-personnel mines are now bound by the Convention’s ban on production. Most other parties have put in place moratoria on production and / or transfers of landmines.

Demining has resulted in millions of square metres of once dangerous land being released for normal human activity.

Natural disasters, including drought, earthquakes, floods, and wildfires, as well as ongoing complex emergencies and limited government capacity in the region, present significant challenges to vulnerable populations in Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia (EMCA). Between FY 2004 and FY 2013, USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) and USAID’s Office of Food for Peace (USAID/FFP) provided assistance in response to a range of disasters, including floods, wildfires, winter emergencies, and complex crises.

Overview

With 53 National Societies, from the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of China, the Europe Zone is very diverse, and there are huge differences when it comes to the level of development and self-reliance. Some National Societies are still very much dependent on external funding, and the sustainability of their programmes and their overall organisation can often be questioned. In the given context, after a long-lasting economic crisis, we have more and more National Societies who are undergoing a major crisis that is triggered by the crisis itself, but the root causes are traced back to the past when the necessary organisational changes had not been undertaken. The traditional way of thinking that only National Societies in transition countries are underperforming is not true any more. The situation is more complex than that. Some of the National Societies in our region are in the middle of the implementation of their planned change processes (Italy and Ireland, for instance) and some others are embarking on a painful journey just now (Greece). Tailored support and individual approach have been the working philosophy of the Secretariat of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, and it will continue to be like this.

There is still an interest in the Organizational Capacity Assessment and Certification Initiative (OCAC) as a self-assessment tool with the possibility to plan more focused Organizational Development interventions and development plans within the NSs in the Europe Zone. To date, 17 NSs have undergone the self-assessment process in Europe and the majority have either developed or are in the process of developing a plan of action linked to the OCAC outcomes.

The National Societies of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Hungary are in the process of discussions with their own governments about the adoption of Red Cross/Red Crescent Laws. A number of National Societies have completed the revision of their Statutes (Russia, Iceland) and some others have started this process (Kazakhstan, Greece). The IFRC Europe Zone Office will continue to accompany the NSs along this process and will interact closely with the Governance department at the Federation`s Geneva-based Secretariat.

Genetic diversity of livestock can help feed a hotter, harsher world

Despite growing interest in safeguarding biodiversity of livestock and poultry,genetic erosion continues

27 January 2016, Rome - Livestock keepers and policy makers worldwide are increasingly interested in harnessing animal biodiversity to improve production and food security on a warmer, more crowded planet, according to a new FAO report issued today. The agency nonetheless warns that many valuable animal breeds continue to be at risk and calls for stronger efforts to use the pool of genetic resources sustainably.

According to The Second Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, some 17 percent (1,458) of the world's farm animal breeds are currently at risk of extinction, while the risk status of many others (58 percent) is simply unknown due to a lack of data on the size and structure of their populations. Nearly 100 livestock breeds have gone extinct between 2000 and 2014.

Country data shows that indiscriminate cross-breeding is considered as the main cause of genetic erosion. Other common threats to animal genetic diversity are the increasing use of non-native breeds, weak policies and institutions regulating the livestock sector, the decline of traditional livestock production systems, and the neglect of breeds considered not competitive enough.

Europe and the Caucasus, and North America are the two areas in the world with the highest proportion of at-risk breeds. In absolute terms, the highest number of at-risk breeds can be found in Europe and the Caucasus.

Both areas are characterized by highly specialized livestock industries that tend to use only a small number of breeds for production.

Why biodiversity matters

Genetic diversity provides the raw material for farmers and pastoralists to improve their breeds and adapt livestock populations to changing environments and changing demands.

"For thousands of years, domesticated animals, like sheep, chickens and camels, have contributed directly to the livelihoods and food security of millions of people," said FAO Director General José Graziano da Silva, "That includes some 70 percent of the world's rural poor today."

"Genetic diversity is a prerequisite for adaptation in the face of future challenges", according to the Director-General, who added that the report will "underpin renewed efforts to ensure that animal genetic resources are used and developed to promote global food security, and remain available for future generations."

Among the future challenges are climate change, emerging diseases, pressure on land and water, and shifting market demands, which make it more important than ever to ensure animal genetic resources are conserved and used sustainably.

Currently, some 38 species and 8,774 separate breeds of domesticated birds and mammals are used in agriculture and food production.

Rise in national gene banks and improved management

A total of 129 countries participated in the new global assessment, which follows nearly a decade after the release of the first global assessment of animal genetic resources in 2007.

"The data we've collected suggests there's been improvement in the number of at-risk breeds since the first assessment," says Beate Scherf, Animal Production Officer at FAO and co-author of the report. "And governments overall have definitely stepped up efforts to halt genetic erosion and more sustainably manage their national livestock breeds."

The study finds that governments are increasingly recognizing the importance of sustainably using and developing the genetic resources embodied in livestock.

When FAO published the first global assessment in 2007, fewer than 10 countries reported having established a gene bank. That number has now risen to 64 countries, and an additional 41 countries are planning to establish such a gene bank, according to the new report.

And these efforts are bearing fruit, experts say: "Over the last decade, countries across Europe have invested heavily in building shared information systems and gene banks as security measures," according to Scherf.

Regional collaborations like the new European Gene Bank Network (EUGENA) are key to managing and improving breeds in the future, she says, and should be supported by in situ conservation of live animals in their natural habitat.

In situ conservation also recognizes the cultural and environmental value of keeping live populations of diverse animal breeds.

Some 177 countries additionally have appointed National Coordinators and 78 have set up multi-stakeholder advisory groups to aid national efforts to better manage animal genetic resources.

Increasing global trade in animal genetic resources

This comes at a time of expansion in the global trade in breeding animals and livestock semen, often for cross-breeding purposes, with many developing countries emerging as significant importers and some also as exporters of genetic material.

Increasingly, farmers and policy makers in developing countries have embraced imports of genetic material as a way to enhance the productivity of their livestock populations - growing their milk output, for example, or decreasing the time needed for an animal to reach maturity.

But if not well planned, cross-breeding can fail to significantly improve productivity and lead to the loss of valuable characteristics such as the special ability to cope with extremes of temperature, limited water supplies, poor-quality feed, rough terrain, high altitudes and other challenging aspects of the production environment.

Challenges to management of genetic resources

In order to better manage livestock diversity going forward, animal breeds and their production environment need to be better described, according to the report, which shows genetic resources are frequently lost when limited knowledge leads to certain breeds going underused.

More also needs to be done to monitor population trends and emerging threats to diversity, according to the report.

Trendspotting will be critical

Among the major changes to the sector over the last decades has been the rapid expansion of large-scale high-input livestock production systems in parts of the developing world, accompanied by growing pressures on natural resources.

South Asia and Africa -two very resource-constrained regions that are home to many small-scale livestock keepers and a diverse range of animal genetic resources - are projected to become the main centres of growth in meat and milk consumption.

Trends like these are grounds for concern because similar rises in demand in other regions have come with a shift away from small-scale production that supports local genetic diversity to large-scale production that is more likely to use a limited number of breeds and can create major challenges for the sustainable use of animal genetic resources.

Changes in food systems are among trends that should be carefully tracked to predict their impact on demand for particular species and breeds, according to the report, along technology, climate changes and government policies.

Need for greater international collaboration

At the same time, the report stresses that international cooperation remains an area requiring improvement in order to support future livestock biodiversity.

Since 2007, countries have been implementing the Global Plan of Action for Animal Genetic Resources, the first internationally agreed framework of its kind.

But international collaboration remains relatively underdeveloped among countries implementing the Plan, the report cautions. Cooperation should be stepped up to move beyond the limited number of bilateral and regional research programs that are currently in place.

Protracted complex emergencies and natural disasters, including drought, earthquakes, floods, and wildfires, present significant challenges to vulnerable populations in Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia (EMCA). Between FY 2007 and FY 2016, USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) and USAID’s Office of Food for Peace (USAID/FFP) provided assistance in response to a range of disasters, including floods, wildfires, winter emergencies, and complex crises. Examples include complex emergencies in Georgia, Iraq, Libya, Syria, Ukraine, and Yemen; earthquakes in Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkey; floods in Moldova, Montenegro, Ukraine, Romania, Serbia, and Slovenia; and wildfires in Albania, Bulgaria, Canada, Croatia, Greece, Macedonia, and Portugal.

Between FY 2007 and FY 2016, USAID provided nearly $5 billion for emergency response programs in the EMCA region. USAID/FFP assistance included nearly $2.8 billion for food assistance in the form of U.S. purchased food, locally and/or regionally purchased food, cash transfers for food, food vouchers, and related activities such as nutrition messaging, community asset building, and support for UN World Food Program special operations. USAID/OFDA assistance included more than $2.2 billion for agriculture and food security, health, livelihoods, nutrition, protection, shelter, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions, as well as support for humanitarian coordination and logistics and the provision of relief commodities.

In the last decade, USAID responded to 88 disasters in EMCA. USAID also frequently deployed humanitarian teams to the region, including five Disaster Assistance Response Teams (DARTs). DARTs deployed to Georgia in FY 2008 and Libya in FY 2011 in response to complex emergencies. During FY 2011, a DART deployed to Israel in response to wildfires. Escalated conflict in Syria prompted USAID to stand up a DART in FY 2013, and a DART deployed to Iraq in the wake of deteriorating security that prompted significant population movement in FY 2014; both DARTs remained active throughout FY 2016. During the past ten years, USAID also activated multiple Washington, D.C.-based Response Management Teams to better facilitate DART coordination and response efforts.

The map below shows asylum applications by under age 18 year olds and gender. Darker colours mean more people have applied in a certain country. Use the slider to select a year or the drop down menus below to display data for different age groups or different home countries.

Protracted complex emergencies and natural disasters, including drought, earthquakes, floods, and wildfires, present significant challenges to vulnerable populations in Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia (EMCA). Between FY 2009 and FY 2018, USAID’s Office of U.S. Foreign Disaster Assistance (USAID/OFDA) and USAID’s Office of Food for Peace (USAID/FFP) provided assistance in response to a range of disasters, including complex emergencies in Iraq, Libya, Syria, Ukraine, and Yemen; earthquakes in Italy, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkey; floods in Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Egypt, Hungary, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, and Tunisia; and fires in Canada, Israel, Montenegro, Portugal, and Russia.

Between FY 2009 and FY 2018, USAID provided more than $8 billion for emergency response programs in EMCA. USAID/FFP assistance included more than $4.4 billion for food and nutrition assistance, including U.S. in-kind food aid, locally or regionally purchased food, cash transfers for food, food vouchers, the prevention and treatment of acute malnutrition, and related activities such as community-asset building. USAID/OFDA assistance included nearly $3.6 billion for agriculture and food security, health, livelihoods, nutrition, protection, shelter, and water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions, as well as support for humanitarian coordination and logistics and the provision of relief commodities.

In the last decade, USAID responded to approximately 80 disasters in EMCA and deployed humanitarian teams to the region, including four Disaster Assistance Response Teams (DARTs). Escalated conflict in Syria prompted USAID to stand up a DART in FY 2013, and a DART deployed to Iraq in the wake of deteriorating security that prompted significant population movement in FY 2014; both DARTs remained active throughout FY 2018. In addition, USAID deployed DARTs to Israel in repsonse to wildfires and Libya in response to a complex emergency in FY 2011. During the past ten years, USAID activated multiple Washington, D.C.-based Response Management Teams to facilitate DART coordination and response efforts.

Introduction

A. Context

Disasters cause massive human suffering and economic loss. In 2017 alone, 318 natural disasters occurred in 122 countries resulting in 9,503 deaths, affecting 96 million people and causing US$314 billion in economic damage.19 The International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), through its Disaster Law Programme, aims to reduce human vulnerability to disasters by promoting effective legal and policy frameworks for disaster management. The Disaster Law Programme works in three main areas: providing technical assistance to governments to strengthen their laws; building the capacity of National Societies and other stakeholders on disaster law; and conducting research and advocacy, including developing and disseminating guidance on best practice.

B. Existing Guidance on Best Practice

In 2007, after years of intensive research and consultations, the IFRC released the Guidelines for the Domestic Facilitation and Regulation of International Disaster Relief and Initial Recovery Assistance (the IDRL Guidelines).20 The IDRL Guidelines are a set of recommendations to governments on how to prepare their disaster laws and plans for the common regulatory problems in international disaster relief operations. The IDRL Guidelines were unanimously adopted by the states party to the Geneva Conventions and the International Red Cross Red Crescent Movement on 30 November 2007 at the 30th International Conference of the Red Cross and Red Crescent.

In 2008, the UN General Assembly adopted three resolutions encouraging states to make use of the IDRL Guidelines; In the subsequent decade, the IDRL Guidelines have been frequently referred to in UN General Assembly resolutions and have been used extensively in domestic disaster law and policy making processes. The Guidelines have subsequently been supplemented with a Model Act, a Model Emergency Decree and a Checklist, all designed to ease the task of implementing the Guidelines at the domestic level. Since 2007, nearly 40 countries have adopted new laws or procedures drawing on the IDRL Guidelines, and National Societies provided their advice and support to implement the recommendations of the IDRL Guidelines in over 100 countries.

In 2012, the IFRC and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) embarked on a joint initiative to study and develop guidance on law relating to disaster risk reduction (DRR). In October 2015, they released the final version of The Checklist on Law and Disaster Risk Reduction (the DRR Checklist). IFRC and UNDP also released a more detailed Handbook on Law and Disaster Risk Reduction to provide detailed guidance on how to answer the Checklist questions. The DRR Checklist was informed by a multi-country report on the DRR-related legislation of 31 countries, and extensive consultations on a pilot version of the DRR Checklist.

The Disaster Law Programme has received many requests from Red Cross Red Crescent National Societies to aid them in providing technical assistance to their authorities to develop laws relating to disaster preparedness and response. The existing guidance documents do not, however, address these aspects of disaster management. In 2017, in order to address this significant gap, IFRC embarked on a project to develop a Checklist on Law and Disaster Preparedness and Response. The purpose of this Report is to inform the proposed Checklist, by identifying the key issues that should be included and providing detailed recommendations about how to develop law and policy to address those issues.

C. Methodology

IFRC commissioned two inputs to inform this Report: first, a literature review on 10 topics that are integral to disaster preparedness and response (the Literature Review); and second, 20 country desktop reviews of domestic laws relevant to disaster preparedness and response (the Desktop Reviews). Both the Literature Review and the Desktop Reviews are available on IFRC’s website. The Literature Review identifies and briefly summarises the key resources on each topic including: international legal materials; academic books and articles; reports and case studies; and existing guidelines, standards and recommendations. The Desktop Reviews respond to a template containing a series of questions, which is also available on IFRC’s website.

The 20 countries selected for the Desktop Reviews were: Australia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Finland, Italy, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Korea, Kyrgyzstan, Madagascar, Mexico, Palestine, Paraguay, Philippines, South Africa, Senegal, the United Kingdom and Vietnam (together, the Sample Countries). The Sample Countries represent the full spectrum of disaster risk levels, including 8 of the top 30 countries most at risk from disasters. They also represent most geographic regions of the world and the full spectrum of the human development index, from low through to very high human development.

This Report is based on an analysis of the 20 Desktop Reviews and the literature on disaster preparedness and response, as identified by the Literature Review. The Report contains ten thematic chapters, each of which addresses a cluster of related issues in disaster preparedness and response. Each chapter discusses the issues in depth and, using the 20 Desktop Reviews, analyses the extent to which those issues are already adequately addressed by domestic law in the Sample Countries. The chapters also draw on the Desktop Reviews to provide examples of good practice in the Sample Countries. Each chapter concludes with a ‘Recommendations’ section that provides domestic decisionmakers with guidance about how to develop domestic disaster law and policy. Here, the term ‘domestic decision-maker’ is used as shorthand for any government or non-governmental actor that is involved in domestic law and policy making processes.

For some of the issues discussed in this Report, the international community has already developed comprehensive principles, guidelines, standards and tools that draw on extensive research and experience. These documents are an invaluable resource for domestic decision-makers. This is true even for resources that are designed by and for international humanitarian actors, as the content of such sources is often relevant for domestic government actors. To the extent that high-quality guidance already exists in relation to a particular topic, this Report avoids ‘reinventing the wheel’. Instead, it briefly summarises key points from the guidance and recommends that domestic decision-makers refer directly to the guidance to inform law and policy making. In relation to many other issues there is, however, no such guidance. In these cases, the Report draws on the information and insights from the literature and the Desktop Reviews to provide detailed recommendations to domestic decision-makers.